Что такое практическая фонетика
Практическая фонетика английского языка
О важности изучения фонетики английского языка мы уже писали, равно как и о том, какую роль в освоении языка играет теоретическая фонетика. Когда мы говорим об отработке практических навыков произношения или восприятия английской речи на слух, то обычно отсылаем к аудио- и видеоматериалам на английском языке. Слушая носителей языка, вы усваиваете правильное произношение и получаете возможность его имитировать. Наработка нужного опыта – долгий процесс, но его можно сделать гораздо эффективнее. Поможет вам в этом практическая фонетика английского языка.
Что такое практическая фонетика английского языка?
Практическая фонетика значительно отличается от простого прослушивания английской речи и попыток её понять и сымитировать. Главная её особенность – это осознанность процесса освоения английской речи. Вы одновременно получаете теоретическую информацию – о том, как с помощью голосового аппарата создаются звуки речи, о ритме в английском языке, о правилах интонирования – и учитесь применять полученные знания на практике.
У такого подхода есть несколько преимуществ:
Что включают в себя учебные пособия по практической фонетике?
Практическую фонетику английского языка невозможно освоить без учебного пособия, которое одновременно давало бы и информацию о том, как работает звуковой строй английского языка на всех уровнях от фонемы до сверхфразового единства, и упражнения на применение полученных знаний на практике.
Такое пособие обычно включает в себя:
«Практическая фонетика английского языка» от Карневской
Одним из наиболее авторитетных учебных пособий в этой области является пособие Елены Карневской, «Практическая фонетика английского языка». Оно предназначено для широкого круга читателей, начиная от школьников, учащихся в специализированных классах, и студентов на факультетах иностранных языков, и заканчивая теми, кто желает выучить английский язык самостоятельно.
Это учебное пособие состоит из двух частей, вводного курса (который также направлен на исправление уже имеющихся ошибок произношения) на русском языке и основного курса на английском. Оно содержит в себе всё необходимое для того, чтобы не только избавиться от русского акцента, но и максимально приблизить свою речь к речи носителей языка.
Вы можете скачать «Практическую фонетику английского языка» Карневской, сделав соответствующий запрос в сети интернет.
Практическая фонетика английского языка
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Реферат по дисциплине:
«Практическая фонетика английского языка»
«Артикуляция переднеязычных согласных в английском и русском языках»
Агаева Лейла Сейфаддиновна
В данном реферате мы рассмотрим артикуляцию переднеязычных согласных в английском и русском языках.
— что такое звуки речи;
-какие существуют принципы классификации английских и русских согласных;
— какие существуют различия в артикуляции английских и русских согласных.
В настоящее время большое внимание уделяется связи между артикуляцией и акустической речи для использования акустических данных в артикуляционных интерпретациях. Эта тема и сейчас остается интересна и познавательна.
1. Артикуляционное направление в изучении речевых звуков
Базовым компонентом фонетической системы любого языка является звук. С точки зрения физики звуки речи, как и любые другие звуки, воспринимаемые нами в повседневной жизни, представляют собой волнообразные колебания воздушных частиц. Речевые звуки можно исследовать с различных точек зрения. Изучение звуков с опорой на тот аппарат, который производит эти звуки, называется артикуляционным.
Звучащая речь является результатом последовательного взаимодействия четырех артикуляционных процессов:
1) формирования воздушной струи, которая образуется в тот момент, когда воздух с силой выталкивается из легких;
2) процесса фонации (звучания), когда воздушный поток начинает вибрировать, проходя через голосовые связки;
3) процесса собственно артикуляции, когда вибрация в струе воздуха обретает особую форму благодаря резонаторам, сформированным в ротовой и носовой полостях органами артикуляции;
4) распространения воздушной волны особой формы в окружающую среду.
Артикуляция звука состоит из 3 этапов:
Экскурсия (приступ) — подготовка речевого аппарата к произнесению звука, или начало артикуляции;
Выдержка (средняя часть) — само произношение с сохранением положения органов, необходимого для произнесения;
Рекурсия (отступ) — окончание артикуляции, представляющее собой завершение звука, при котором органы речи меняют своё расположение для произнесения следующего звука или переходят в состояние покоя.
При артикуляции согласных в непрерывном речевом потоке обнаруживается, что экскурсия совпадает по времени с артикуляцией предшествующего звука, а рекурсия — с артикуляцией звука, следующего за согласным; фаза выдержки также обнаруживает зависимость от свойств окружающих звуков.
В некоторых случаях эти сочетания представляют собой артикуляторно-нечленимое целое: так, сочетание [фс] в рус. слове «овса» может быть описано как последовательность короткой [ф]-образиой экскурсии, длительности, выдержки, где артикулируются одновременно оба согласных, и короткой [с]-oбразной рекурсии.
Артикуляционные свойства согласных:
обязательное наличие преграды в речевом тракте; с акустической точки зрения согласные характеризуются как звуки, при образовании которых важную роль играют шумовые источники
согласные (не только сонанты, но и шумные) могут образовывать вершину слога, но слогообразующая функция для них не характерна и в сочетании с гласным не может реализоваться.
Артикуляционная классификация согласных строится на основе таких признаков, как:
Активный действующий орган, образующий преграду. По этому признаку согласные делятся на губные (губно-губные и губно-зубные), переднеязычные (которые разделяются на апикальные, когда активным органом является кончик языка; дорсальные— передняя часть спинки языка; какуминальные —подъем всего края передней части языка; ретрофлексные — загибание кончика языка назад). Кроме передней части спинки языка активно артикулирует н ее средняя часть или задняя, тогда образуются среднеязычные, заднеязычные. При образовании увулярных действует маленький язычок — небный язычок (увула) или вся нёбная занавеска. Существуют также фарингальные (сжатие глотки) и гортанные, или ларингальные (смыкание или сближение голосовых связок).
Способ образования преграды. В случае если проход воздушной струи по речевому тракту прекращается полностью, то образуются смычные согласных, которые могут быть взрывными (если смычка раскрывается мгновенно) или аффрикатами (если после смычки артикулирующие органы не раскрываются полностью и между ними сохраняется сужение); преграда может лишь сужать речевой тракт — в этом случае образуются щелевые согласные; при вибрации активного действующего органа образуются дрожащие согласные.
Поведение голосовых связок. Если голосовые связки при образовании С. сведены, напряжены и находятся в состоянии колебания, образуются звонкие С, если разведены и не участвуют в артикуляции — глухие.
Положение мягкого нёба. При поднятом мягком нёбе, закрывающем проход воздуха в полость носа, образуются ротовые согласные, а при опущенном — носовые.
Пассивный действующий орган, участвующий в образовании преграды. Так, язычные по активному действующему органу согласные могут быть охарактеризованы как дентальные (зубные), альвеолярные (надзубные), палатальные, велярные.
Количество сужений в речевом тракте при образовании согласных. По этому признаку согласные могут быть однофокусными и двухфокусными.
Место прохождения воздушной струи при артикуляции согласных. (срединные и боковые) и т.д.
Артикуляции переднеязычных согласных имеют разнообразие по языкам. В зависимости от положения кончика языка их делят также на дорсальные (от лат.dorsum- спина), апикальные (от лат.apex- верхушка) и какуминальные (от лат.cacumen-острый конец, вершина). Дорсальные образуются приближением передней части спинки языка к верхним зубам и альвеолам (например, рус. [т, н, с]), при этом кончик языка опущен к нижним зубам. При образовании апикальных звуков вместе с передней частью спинки языка к верхним зубам и альвеолам приподнимается и кончик языка (например, англ. [t,d]). При образовании куминальных звуков кончик языка приподнят, а передняя часть спинки языка несколько вогнута внутрь (например, рус. [р]).
2. Английская и русская системы согласных. Переднеязычные согласные.
Английский и русский языки относятся к одной семье индоевропейских языков. Английский язык принадлежит к группе германских языков, а русский — к восточнославянской группе. Принадлежность к одной языковой семье объясняет большое сходство между этими языками, как в системе вокализма (гласных), так и в системе консонантизма (согласных).
Русский язык относится к ярко выраженному консонантному типу, так как основу его звукового строя составляют согласные: 36 согласных и только 6(5) гласных звуков.
Согласные звуки – это звуки, которые образуются при участии голоса и шума или только шума.
Различия по месту артикуляции:
В русском языке присутствуют все группы согласных по месту артикуляции, за исключением глоттальных (есть в английском).
В русском языке по сравнению с английским, зубных согласных больше, но мало альвеолярных. В английском языке, наоборот, мало зубных согласных.
Особенностью системы согласных звуков в русском языке является их противопоставление по признаку твердости/мягкости. Твердые согласные кроме основной артикуляции характеризуются подъемом задней части языка к мягкому нёбу (веляризация), а мягкие — подъемом передней части языка к твердому нёбу (палатализация).
В английском языке отсутствуют характерные для русского языка фрикативные велярные согласные.
Различия по типу преграды и способу образования шума:
Классификация согласных звуков с учетом типа преграды и способа образования шума в основном совпадает в обоих языках. Основное отличие заключается в существовании разряда дрожащих согласных.
В английском языке по сравнению с русским больше аппроксимантов разного места образования.
Различия по работе голосовых связок
В английском языке дистинктивным признаком для шумных согласных является сила артикуляции. Английские звонкие согласные можно считать таковыми только в интервокальном положении, так как в других фонетических контекстах они частично или полностью оглушаются.
В русском языке дистинктивным признаком для шумных согласных является работа голосовых связок, и русские звонкие согласные всегда полнозвонкие, за исключением позиции в конце слова, когда они полностью оглушаются, например: дуб [дуп].
И в английском языке и в русском, глухие согласные артикулируются более напряженно, чем звонкие, и характеризуются более сильной воздушной струей. Однако напряженность / ненапряженность согласных для русского языка является сопутствующим признаком.
Переднеязычные согласные (лат. linguales priores) — согласные звуки человеческой речи, при произношении которых активным органом является передняя часть языка. Язык при этих звуках может иметь или корональную, или дорсальную, или латеральную, иначе — боковую артикуляцию. Участие различных пассивных органов речи также находится в связи с артикуляциями. При помощи органов речи передняя часть языка выполняет свои артикуляции.
Таким образом произносятся переднеязычные спиранты русского языка с и з; возможны и переднеязычные дорсальные т и д, но обычно они не встречаются, кроме того т, которое входит в состав сложного согласного ц = т + с. Возможны и латеральные переднеязычные звуки, или боковые, при которых, кроме латеральной или боковой артикуляции языка, всегда имеется дорсальная или корональная.
При классификации согласных по активному артикулятору (органу речи) отечественные фонетисты выделяют пять типов для английского языка, один из которых – переднеязычный. Это когда кончик языка сближается с зубами ([Ɵ], [ð]), альвеолами ([t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l]) или их задним скатом ([ʃ], [ʒ],[ ʧ] [], [r].
В русском языке, переднеязычные согласные по месту образования разделяются на зубные и передненёбные. При образовании зубных звуков преграда создается сближением передней части и кончика языка с зубами, зубами и альвеолами или альвеолами. Подавляющее большинство переднеязычных звуков относится к категории зубных: [д-д’, т-т’, з-з’, с-с’, н-н’, л-л’, ц]. Передненёбные образуются поднятием передней части спинки языка или его кончика по направлению к альвеолам и передней части твердого нёба, к ним относятся [ж, ш, ч’, р-р’].
3. Основные различия в артикуляции переднеязычных согласных в английском и русском языках
Артикуляция всех звуков в языке регулируется определенным, постоянно поддерживаемым положением органов речи, называемым артикуляционным укладом. Рассмотрим подробно разницу между артикуляцией переднеязычных согласных в английском и русском языках.
В русском языке аналогичные звуки [т], [д], [т’], [д’], [с], [з], [с’], [з’], [н], [н’], [ц], [ч’], [ш], [ш’], [ж] являются ламинальными и зубными, т.е. произносятся при активной лопаточной части языка, которая образует преграду с основанием передних верхних зубов. Кончик языка при этом остается пассивным. В русском языке только [р], [р’], [л] и [л’] являются апикальными, т.е. артикулируются кончиком языка. Положение кончика языка преимущественно у нижних зубов способствует продвижению передней части языка вперед, что приводит к увеличению зоны контакта при артикуляции звуков: она может быть расширена и захватывать альвеолярную часть. Это придает русским согласным иную акустическую окраску. Английские зубные [Ɵ], [ð] артикулируются иначе: кончиком языка и краями передних верхних зубов.
Английские согласные, артикуляция которых от положения кончика языка не зависит, такие как губно-губные, губно-зубные, велярные, также произносятся с ориентацией на артикуляционный уклад (кончик языка отодвинут и поднят, передняя часть языка опущена, губы растянуты). Такое положение артикуляторов приводит к увеличению объема ротового резонатора, поэтому акустическая картина тождественных по типу звуков в русском и английском языках заметно различается.
Несмотря на общее стремление поддерживать некоторую степень растянутости губ при фонации, необходимо, тем не менее, отметить заметную тенденцию последних лет округлять губы при производстве [ʃ], [ʒ], [ʧ], [] и [r]. Это еще в большей степени увеличивает объем ротового резонатора, что, несомненно, сказывается на воспринимаемом качестве согласных.
Чтобы ясно представлять разницу в произносительных системах иностранного и родного языков, необходимо знать особенности их артикуляционной базы. Под артикуляционной базой подразумевают особенности механизма производства звуков (как гласных, так и согласных), обусловленные анатомическим строением речевого аппарата.
Данный механизм включает: способ подачи воздуха, необходимого для производства звука, особенности формы резонатора (главным образом ротового), положение языка, положение губ и т. п.
Английская артикуляционная база характеризуется следующими особенностями:
выдыхаемый воздух подается краткими отрывистыми порциями в отличие от русской плавной манеры;
анатомические особенности строения речевого резонатора обуславливают апикальное положение языка, когда активным в производстве согласных звуков является только самый его кончик- tip (в отличие от передней части в русском языке- blade); в английском варианте язык как бы больше оттянут назад и с трудом дотягивается до зубов и альвеол; кроме того, спинка языка распластана и имеет плоскую форму (flat);
верхняя губа слегка растянута в улыбке (a phonetic smile) и не меняет своего положения в процессе произнесения, т. е. губы не двигаются в горизонтальной плоскости, так что их углы остаются неподвижными (stiff upper lip); в русском языке губы очень подвижны: они сильно округляются и выпячиваются, звуки, произносимые с выпячиванием и округлением губ, называются лабиализованными;
расстояние между челюстями, в английском произнесении уже, чем в русском.
Эти особенности влияют на качество английских гласных и согласных звуков, в том числе и на наличие апикальной артикуляции у всех переднеязычных звуков, отсутствие смягчения: [d, t, z, s, n, r, l].
В английском и русском языке существуют различия между переднеязычными согласными, такие как:
различия по месту артикуляции;
различия по типу преграды и способу образования шума;
различия по работе голосовых связок.
В наше время используются мощные технологии, новые различные программы для более подробного и точного изучения различий в артикуляционных базах английских и русских согласных.
2. Афанасьева О.В., Резвецова М.Д., Самохина Т.С. «Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков (практикум)». – М.: ФИЗМАТЛИТ, 2000. – С. 62-81.
3. Веренинова Ж.Б. «Фонетическая база английского языка в сопоставлении с фонетической базой русского языка: Учебное пособие». Изд. – Росто, 2007. – 278 с.
5. Ривлина А.А. «Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков: Учебное пособие для вузов: Просвещение, 2007». – 162 с.
6. Розенталь Д.Э. Голуб И.Б., Теленкова М.А. «Современный русский язык». – М.: Рольф, 2001. – С. 139-156.
Хорошилова Светлана Петровна
3.1. Stressed and Unstressed Words
In the group “I could hardly believe my eyes” the words hardly, believe and eyes are stressed: this means that one of the syllables of the word (the only syllable in eyes!) is said with greater force, with greater effort, than the others.
What sorts of words are stressed, then, and what sorts are unstressed? First, words of more than one syllable are stressed. In some circumstances English speakers do not stress such words, but it is always possible to stress them and you should do so. Next, words of one syllable are generally not stressed if they are purely grammatical words like pronouns, prepositions, articles. Other words are stressed, for example, full verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs and the like. In general it is the picture words which are stressed, the words which give us the picture or provide most of the information. Though you should remember that for special purposes it is possible to stress any English words, even the purely grammatical ones, but usually they are unstressed.
Study the list of stressed and unstressed words in table 2.
nouns, adjectives, numerals, notional verbs, adverbs, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, absolute form of the possessive pronouns
a) in general and alternative questions;
b) when they stand for a notional verb;
e.g. Have you seen him? – Yes, I have.
c) in contracted negative forms;
d) “to be” when final and preceded by the unstressed syllables;
e) “to do” in emphatic sentences
if consist of 2 or more syllables and followed by an unstressed personal pronoun at the end of a word group
e.g. The dog ran after him.
at the beginning of the utterance and followed by an unstressed word
e.g. If, when he goes.
and relative pronouns.
auxiliary verbs and modal verbs, “to be”, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles
e.g. Show a black one.
Preposition “each” in “each other”
e.g. as much as; as well as
3.2. Weak Forms of Words
In “It was too expensive for them to buy” [It wqz tu: IkspensIv fq Dqm tq baI] тotice the pronunciation of the words was, for, them and to: all of them have the vowel [q]. If those words are pronounced alone, they have the pronunciations [wPz], [fL], [Dem] and [tu:], but usually they are not pronounced alone and are not stressed, and then the forms with [q] are used; we call these the weak forms of those words. The use of weak forms is an essential part of English speech and you must learn to use the weak forms of English words. Some words have more than one weak form and the following list tells you when to use one and when the other. Study table 3. We use strong forms whenever the word is final in the group [QI dqun’t wPnt tH]. Exceptions: he, him, his, her, them, us have their weak forms in final position (unless they are stressed). At the beginning of word groups the forms hJ, hIm, hIz, hW should be used: [ hJ lQIks It].
List of Weak Forms
Dq (before consonants)
Di:, DI (before vowels)
Di: a:nts qn Di: ANklz
q (before consonants)
qn, n (before vowels)
fq (before consonants)
fqr, fr (before vowels)
aI sent It frqm lAndqn
Dq kwi:n qv INglqnd
tq, t (before consonants)
aI went qru Dq taun
ql (after vowels and [l])
Dq bOI ql lu:z qn Dq gз:l ql wIn
d (after personal pronouns)
ju: Sqd kAm qt wAns
v (after personal pronouns)
z (after [s, z, S, Z, tS, dZ])
Dq pleIs qz tSeIndZd
d (after personal pronouns)
Dq deI qd bi:n faIn
wen qm aI tq bi: DFq?
q (before consonants)
s (after voiceless consonants)
z (after vowels and voiced consonants)
after [s, z, S,Z, tS, dZ] the strong form [Iz] is always used
Dq weDq wqz terqbl
wq (before consonants)
dq (before consonants)
wen dqz Dq treIn li:v?
(at the beginning of the word groups the strong form should be used)
hi: wqunt let qs du: It
send Dqm baI pqust
jq (before consonants)
O (before consonants)
aI qdmIt Dqt aI dId It
tq (before consonants)
aI wOntId tu: Rsk jH
3.3. Rhythm Units
Within the word group there is at least one stressed syllable [֍ wen?֍ su:n֍ nau֍ jes֍]. The length of the syllable in a very short group of this kind depends on the natural length of the vowel and the following consonant(s) if any.
[nau] is a very long syllable because it has a diphthong and no following consonant – we stretch it out.
[su:n] is also very long because it has a long vowel followed by a weak consonant.
[wen] is a little shorter because it has a short vowel, but not very short because of the slight lengthening effect of the following weak consonant.
[jes] is the shortest of these syllables because it has a short vowel followed by a strong consonant, but notice that even this kind of syllable is not very short in English.
The stressed syllable may have one or more unstressed syllables before it: [Its ‘kquld], [aI q’gri:], [aI Sl kqm’pleIn]. These unstressed syllables before the stress are said very quickly, so they are all very short, as short as you can make them, but the stressed syllable is as long as before, so there is a great difference of length between the unstressed syllable and the stressed one. Say those examples with very quick, very short unstressed syllables, and then stretch out the stressed one. Do the same with these:
The stressed syllable may also be followed by one or more unstressed syllables: [ teIk It], [O:l qv It?], [ nxtSqrqlI]. But these unstressed syllables are not said specially quickly; what happens is that the stressed syllable and the following unstressed syllable(s) share the amount of time which a single stressed syllable would have; so [naIn], [ naIntI], [ naIntIqq] all take about the same time to say; [naIn] is stretched out, but the [naIn] in [ naIntI] is only half as long and the [naIn] in [ naIntIqq] is shorter still and the unstressed syllables are of the same length as the stressed ones. These unstressed syllables after the stress must not be rushed as the ones before stressed syllable. Say those examples, and be sure that the three words all take about the same time to say. Then try these:
In the group [It wqz ‘betq] there are two unstressed syllables before the stress and one after it. The first two are said quickly, the last one not so quickly, taking the same amount of time as [be]. Practise that group with the first two syllables very short and the next two longer. Do the same with the following:
hi: kud qv q’vOIdId It
It wqz qn ‘xksIdqnt
bqt DFq wq ‘plentI qv Dqm
The group [ ‘waI ‘nOt?] has two stresses and two syllables are given the same length. But in [ ‘waI ‘nOt ‘teIk It?ç] the first two syllables [ waI nOt] are equal in length but the following two syllables [ teIk It] are said in the same time as [ waI], so they are both only half the length of [ waI] and [ nOt]. This is exactly what happens with [naIn] and [ naIntI ].
In [ ‘bquq qv Dqm ‘left ‘з:lI ç] the three syllables of [ bquq qv Dqm] and the two syllables of [ з:lI] are said in the same amount of time as the single syllable [left], so [left] is the longest syllable, the two syllables of [ з:lI] are shorter and the three of [ bquq qv Dqm] are shorter still.
A stressed syllable together with any unstressed syllables which may follow it form a stress group. So [ ‘bquq qv Dqm] is one stress group, [ ‘left] is another and [‘з:lI] is another. The fundamental rule of English rhythm is this: each stress group within a word group is given the same amount of time.
It seems useful to leave out any spaces between syllables belonging to the same stress group as it will remind us that they belong to a single stress group and must be said in the same time as other stress groups in the same word group.
[ ‘bquqqvDqm ‘left ‘з:lI ]
The best way to practise English rhythm is to beat the rhythm with your hand, one beat for each stressed syllable and with exactly the same time between each pair of beats. It is useful to bang rhythmically on the table with a pen and at each bang comes a stressed syllable. Don’t forget that each stress group gets the same time as the others in that word group.
In the group [aIm ‘gquIN ‘hqum] there are two stress groups [ ‘gquIN] and
[‘hqum]. The syllable [aIm] does not belong to any stress group since it comes before the stress, and it is said very quickly, as we saw earlier, quicker than the unstressed syllable in the stress group [‘gquIN]. We can show this as follows:
In the group [aIm ‘gquIN ‘hqum tq’deI] the unstressed syllable [tq] in [tq’deI] behaves exactly like [aIm], it is said very quickly and the stressed syllable [ hqum] is still just as long as the two syllables of [gquIN], not reduced in length as you might expect: [aIm ‘gquIN ‘hqum tq’deI ç].
So we say that [tq] does not belong to the same stress group as [hqum], but that it is outside any stress group, like [aIm]. Exactly the same is true for [fq] in [aIm ‘gquIN ‘hqum fq ‘krIsmqsç].
In this sort of arrangement any unstressed syllable before the stressed syllable is said very quickly and does not affect the length of syllables before it. We say them as quickly as we can so that they interfere as little as possible with the regular return of the stressed syllables. Any unstressed syllable after the stress is of course part of the stress group and shares the available time with the other syllables of the stress group.
A unit of this kind, with a stressed syllable as its centre and any unstressed syllables which may come before it and after it, is called a rhythm unit. So [aIm ‘gquIN] is a rhythm unit, and so is [ ‘hqum] and so is [fq ‘krIsmqs].
How to decide what words or syllables go together in a rhythm unit? Here are the rules according to two tendencies which exist in English – semantic and enclitic:
1. If the unstressed syllable(s) is part of the same word as the stressed syllable they belong to the same rhythm group (a semantic viewpoint) :
[ ‘tSi:pq ‘fFqz] [ ‘tSi:p q’fFqz]
(cheaper fares) (cheap affairs)
2. Any unstressed syllables at the beginning of a word group must go together with the following stress group (both semantic and enclitic tendencies):
[aIwqzIn ‘lAndqn] [maI q’pOlqdZIz]
3. If the unstressed syllable(s) is closely connected grammatically to the stressed word, although not a part of that word, they belong to the same rhythm unit (a semantic viewpoint):
[ ‘gIvIt tq’dZOn] [ ‘teIkDqm fqrq’wq:k]
[ ‘hau dIdju:’mxnIdZ tqbI ‘DFqr In’taIm]
4. Whenever you are in doubt as to which rhythm unit unstressed syllables belong to, put them after a stress rather than before it. So in “He was‘ older than‘ me” if you are doubtful about [Dqn], put it with [ quldq] and not with [mi:]: [hIwqz ‘quldqDqn ‘mi:]. This is called enclitic tendency which is strong at present in English. Semantic tendency is mainly realized in prepared speech.
So, many learners of English find English rhythm rather difficult to master because of the constant changes of syllable length which occur in English word groups and they will need to work hard at it. If every syllable is made the same length in English it gives the effect of a machine-gun firing and makes the utterances very hard to understand. Some good work on English rhythm will help greatly in improving the sound of your speech.
[‘breIkItIntq ‘sevrql ‘pJsIz]
3.4. Assimilation
Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:
2) degree of completeness,
3) degree of stability.
Assimilation can affect the place of obstruction and the active organ of speech; the work of the vocal cords; the position of the lips; the position of the soft palate; the manner of the release of plosive consonants.
Direction of Assimilation.
The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English can act in a progressive, regressive or reciprocal (double) direction.
When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the influence of the preceding, which remains unchanged, assimilation is called progressive. For example,
e.g. pens [penz], calls [kLlz], desks [desks], books [buks]
2) Within the words sandwich, grandmother, etc. under the influence of [n] the consonant [d] changes into [n] and then disappears.
e.g. sandwich [ sxnnwidZ] Þ [ sxnwidZ]
When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one assimilation is called regressive. For example, within the word width and in the word combination in them the alveolar [d] and [n] become dental before the interdental [q] and [D].
Reciprocal or double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds. For example, within the word tree [tri:] the sonorant [r] is partly devoiced under the influence of the voiceless [t] and the alveolar [t] becomes post-alveolar before the post-alveolar [r].
Degree of Completeness.
According to its degree, assimilation can be complete, incomplete and intermediate. Assimilation is called complete in the case the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. It always takes place when the two sounds differ only in one articulatory feature. We find cases of complete assimilation within words, e.g. cupboard [ kApbqd] Þ [ kAbqd], and at the word junction in fluent speech, e.g. less shy [ les SaI ] Þ [ leS SaI].
Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. For example, the sonorants [w, l, r] are partly devoiced when preceded by the voiceless fortis [p, t, k, s, f, q] within words sweet [swi:t], place [pleIs], try [traI ].
The degree of assimilation is said to be intermediate between complete and incomplete when the assimilated consonant changes into a different sound but does not coincide with the assimilating sound.
e.g. gooseberry [ guzberI], congress [ kONgres].
Degree of Stability.
Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language have become obligatory in Modern English; they may, or may not be reflected in spelling. Such changes which have taken place over a period of time within words are called historical.
e.g. orchard (ort + yard) [ Ltjqd] Þ [LtSqd]
In modern language obligatory assimilations are special allophonic variants characteristic of the natives’ speech. The use of the wrong allophone, though a non-phonemic mistake, amounts to mispronunciation and may be one of the causes of a foreign accent making understanding difficult. For example, a dental allophone of the alveolar [t] should be used when it is followed by interdental [q] or [D] as in eighth [eItq].
Besides there are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of assimilation which can be traced mainly at word boundaries,
e.g. ten minutes [ ten mInIts] Þ [ tem mInIts]
ten girls [ ten gз:lz] Þ [ teN gз:lz]
Non-obligatory assimilations are characteristic of fluent or careless speech and should be avoided by public speakers (lecturers, teachers, etc.).
Quality of Adjacent Sounds.
In Modern English it is mainly consonants that are assimilated. When the two adjacent sounds are consonants there occur most striking assimilative changes.
Modification of the Place of Obstruction and the Active Organ of Speech.
Assimilation may take place within a word and also at word boundaries. The following three important cases should be noticed:
a) The alveolar allophones of [t, d, n, l, s, z] are replaced by the dental variants when immediately followed by the interdental [q] or [D].
e.g. within words: breadth, tenth;
at word boundaries: Put that down! Read this! on the desk.
b) The post-alveolar [t] and [d] are heard before the post-alveolar sonorant [r].
e.g. within words: trip, true, trunk, dream, drink, dry;
at word boundaries: at rest, would read.
c) The bilabial nasal [m] or the alveolar nasal [n] become labio-dental under the influence of immediately following labio-dental fricatives [f, v].
e.g. within words: triumph, comfort, infant;
at word boundaries: come for me, ten forks.
Changes in the Work of the Vocal Cords (Voicing or Devoicing).
Progressive voicing or devoicing is common in English but is very rare in Russian.
a) The sonorants [m, n, l, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k, f, q, S],
e.g. within words: small, sneer, slow, place, climb, fly, sweep, try, cream, stupid, few.
At word boundaries the sonorants [l, r, w] are slightly devoiced if with the adjacent words they form a phrasal word or a rhythmic group.
e.g. at last, at rest.
b) Contracted forms of the verbs is and has may retain voice or be devoiced depending on the preceding consonants.
e.g. That’s right. [ Dxts raIt]
Jack’s done it. [ Gxks dAn It]
Bob’s gone out. [ bObz gOn aut]
[z] after all voiced consonants except [z] and [Z] and after all vowel sounds,
e.g. girls [gз:lz], reads [ri:dz];
[s] after all voiceless consonants except [s] and [S],
e.g. Jack’s [dZxks], books [buks], writes [raIts];
a separate syllable [Iz] after [s, z] or [S, Z],
e.g. George’s [ dLGIz], dishes [ dISIz], washes [ wOSIz], boxes [ bOksIz].
[d] after all voiced consonants except [d] and after all vowel sounds,
e.g. lived [lIvd], played [pleId];
[t] after all voiceless consonants except [t],
a separate syllable [Id] after [d, t],
e.g. expected [IkspektId], intended [IntendId].
In English regressive voicing or devoicing is found only in a few cases of historical assimilation within a compound word when the semantic independence of the first component is lost.
e.g. fivepence [ faIfpqns], cf. five [faIv]
gooseberry [ guzbqrI], cf. goose [gu:s]
Regressive voicing or devoicing may also take place in closely connected pairs of words.
e.g. I have to [aI hxftu]
She has to [SI hxѕtu]
I used to [aI ju:sttu]
In English word sequences word final voiced consonants are not fully devoiced under the influence of the immediately following voiceless consonants.
e.g. good chap [ gud tSxp], big case [ bIg keIs]
Neither are the word final voiceless consonants voiced under the influence of the immediately following voiced consonants.
e.g. white dress [ waIt dres], this book [ DIs buk]
Typical mistakes of Russian learners lie in devoicing voiced consonants before voiceless ones and voicing voiceless consonants before voiced ones.
Changes in the Lip Position.
Consonants followed by the sonorant [w] change their lip position. They become lip-rounded in anticipation of [w].
e.g. twinkle, quite, swan, language.
Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate.
Nasal consonants may influence the adjacent plosives. Sometimes [d] changes into [n] under the influence of the preceding [n].
e.g. handsome [ hxndsqm] Þ [ hxnnsqm] Þ [ hxnsm]
Nasalisation affects mainly the alveolar consonants, especially adjacent to the negative [n’t], and is characteristic of very rapid speech.
e.g. [d] Þ [n] She wouldn’t do it. [Si× wunnt du: It]
[d] Þ [b] Þ [m] Good morning. [gub mLnIN] Þ [gum mLnIN]
Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Consonants.
The main variants are:
1) Incomplete plosion.
In the clusters of two plosives [pp, pb, bb, bp, tt, td, dd, dt, ttS, dG, dC, kk, kg, gg, gk] where the plosion of the organs of speech is the same for both consonants, there is no separation of the organs of speech between the two plosives. The hold stage is prolonged from the beginning of the first consonant until the release of the second. The effect is that of a single plosive pronounced with very long hold. In such clusters the first stop has no plosion.
e.g. within a word: accommodation, attraction, bookcase
at word boundaries: lamp post, what time, went down, that child, that joke, big cat, good chance
In a cluster of two plosives or of a plosive and an affricate theclosure of the organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. The first plosive is incomplete.
e.g. within a word: talked, object, lecture
at word boundaries: good girl, hot bottle
If you do make two explosions in English it will not cause misunderstanding, but it will sound un-English.
When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] it has no release of its own, the so-called «nasal» plosion is produced. In such sequences the closure for the plosive is made normally, but the release is produced not by a removal of the oral closure, which is retained, but by the lowering of the soft palate, which allows the compressed air to escape through the nasal cavity to form the nasal consonant.
e.g. within a word: happen, shipmate, submarine, button, subnormal
at word boundaries: stop moaning, escape noisily, sub man, sob noisily
In the sequences of a plosive immediately followed by [l] the closure produced for the plosive is not released till after [l]. Before [l] the release is made by a sudden lowering of the sides of the tongue with lateral plosion.
3.5. The Reduction of Consonants Clusters
(Elision)
The reduction of some consonant clusters was established long ago.
1) The initial [w, k, g] may be dropped.
e.g. write [raIt], know [nqu], gnat [nxt]
2) The medial [t] or [d] are dropped in a cluster of three consonants.
e.g. listen [ lIsn], soften [ sOfn], Wednesday [ wenzdI]
3) The final [b] is dropped in the cluster [mb].
e.g. lamb [lxm], dumb [dAm]
In other cases of recent formation the elided forms are typical only of rapid colloquial speech. In the following examples the elided sound is still pronounced in careful, precise speech, cf. often [Ofn] or [ Oftqn].
In present-day English the reduction of clusters continues to take place.
The plosives [t] or [d] in the clusters [st, ft, St, nd, ld, rd, Dd, vd] in final position when followed by a word with an initial consonant are often reduced in rapid speech.
e.g. last time [ la:s taIm], mashed potatoes [ mxSt pqteItqP, next day [ neks deI], old man [ qul mxn]
Word final clusters of plosives or affricates + [t] or [d], [pt, kt, Ct, bd, gd, dG] may lose the final alveolar plosive when the following word begins with a consonant.
e.g. kept quiet [ kep kwaIqt], lagged behind [ lxg bIhaInd]
e.g. You mustn’t do it. [ju mAsn du: It]
When [t] or [d] occur between two other plosives they are never heard.
e.g. locked gate [ lOk geIt], strict teacher [ strIk ti:tSq]
[h] may be dropped in the following monosyllabes when non-initial and unstressed: have, has, had; he, him, his, her; who.
e.g. Tell him he is wanted. [ tel Im Iz wOntId]
but: He’s wanted. [hIz wOntId]
3.6. Exercises
Weak Forms
Each of the following examples contains one or more of the words which often have weak forms. Transcribe the examples phonetically, showing the stressed syllables and the weak (or strong!) forms of those words:
They came to the door.
There were two of them.
What are you surprised at?
She is as old as the hills.
She has an uncle and a cousin.
Who will meet him at the airport?
What is her phone number?
What does that matter?
I would like some tea.
What has John come for?
For his saw that you borrowed.
He was pleased, wasn’t he?
When am I going to get it?
I have taken it from the shelf.
Yes, I thought you had.
They had already read it.
Rhythm Units
Practise the following examples, beating the rhythm of the stressed syllables as you go and varying the lengths of the syllables so as to keep the stress groups equal in length. Mark a stress group with a straight line and a rhythm unit with a wavy line first acccording to semantic tendency and then according to enclitic tendency:
Take it to Johnson.
He was lighting the fire.
He was most amusing.
He was very amusing.
It’s a difficult job.
It was a really good meal.
It was a really pleasant meal.
It was a really excellent meal.
He plays very well.
He’s playing very well.
He’s playing it very well.
You did it rather well.
You did it rather better.
You did it rather cleverly.
3. Assimilation
I. Practise saying the following:
II. Transcribe the following passage phonetically and find the words which might have assimilation.
I have needed some new bookshelves for a long time. So during my holiday I decided to tackle the job myself. Not that I am very clever with my hands but it did not seem too difficult and as I had already said that we could not afford to go away I thought it would be prudent not to spend money having it done professionally. I bought the wood at the local handicraft shop and I had plenty of screws, but I found that my old saw, which had been left behind by the previous owner of the house, was not good enough and I decided to buy a new one. That was my first mistake, my second was to go to the biggest ironmonger in London and ask for a saw. You would think it was simple, wouldn’t you, to buy a saw. But it is not. I said to the man behind the counter, “I want a saw.” He was a nice man and did his best for me. “Yes, sir, what kind of saw?” “Oh, a saw for cutting wood.” “Yes, sir, but we have fifteen different kinds for different jobs. What did you want it for?” I explained about my bookshelves and felt like an ignorant fool in a world of experts, which was true. He saw that I was a novice and was very kind. He told me what I should need and advised me to have a ladies’ size. “Easier to manage for the beginner, sir.” He was not being nasty just helpful and I was grateful to him. He also sold me a book on woodwork for schoolboys and I’ve been reading it with great interest. The next time I am on holiday I shall start on the shelves.
III. Find the place of assimilation in the following words and word clusters and state the type of assimilation and what it affects.
Small; twenty; did you; give me; handkerchief; does she; swop; could you; about them; I have to; kind man; last time.
Elision
I. Practise saying the following examples:
Westminster next day
sounds last chance
kindness first light
friendship cold smile
last night old man
II. Drop [t], [d] in consonant clusters and [h] from unstressed pronouns and auxiliaries within an utterance:
1. He looks too old for his age.
2. Did he lift his handbag by himself?
3. When I just saw him he was a handsome man.
4. What did he take for breakfast?
5. I’ll cut some sandwiches for us.
6. How long did it take him to reach the station?
7. What did his wife do when he entered the kitchen?
8. His wife gave him his breakfast.
9. Is he going with us?
10. Don’t you think she might have gone home?
11. Both her father and mother are teachers.
12. The landscape doesn’t change much in winter.
13. I saw her grandmother last night.
14. The old man is keen on gardening.
15. I rang him up last night but there wasn’t anyone in.
4. INTONATION
Every language has melody in it; no language is spoken on the same musical note all the time. The voice goes up and down and the different notes of the voice combine to make tunes. In English the tune belongs to the word group. We can say a word group definitely or we can say it hesitantly, we can say it angrily or kindly, we can say it with interest or without interest, and these differences are largely made by the tunes we use: the words do not change their meaning but the tune we use adds something to the words, and what it adds is the speaker’s feelings at that moment; this way of using tunes is called intonation.
Intonation is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence-stress, voice quality (timbre), speech tempo, rhythm.
These features vary in their relevance. Speech melody remains the most central component of intonation but all the other components are included into the definition of intonation too.
English intonation is English; it is not the same as the intonation of any other language. Some people imagine that intonation is the same for all languages, but this is not true. You must learn the shapes of the English tunes, and these may be quite different from the normal tunes of your own language; and you must learn the meanings of the English tunes too, because they are important.
4.1. Graphical Representation of Intonation and Basic Notions
The information conveyed by a sentence is expressed not only by its lexical and grammatical structure but also by intonation.
The term ‘intonation’ implies:
1) variations in pitch;
2) utterance stress;
Intonation may be shown in the line of text and on the scales (staves).
a) To mark the intonation in the line of text we use Roger Kingdon’s stress-mark system, which consists of vertical stress marks to indicate stressed syllables and slant marks (\ /) above and below the line of print to show the final tones.
b) We use Lily Armstrong’s system of dots for unstressed syllables, dashes for stressed syllables and slant marks (curves) for final tones to indicate intonation on the scales. A downward curve represents the final fall and an upward curve represents the final rise.
Each tone group has its own pitch-and-stress pattern. Generally three pitch levels are distinguished: low, medium, high.
The pitch range is the interval between two pitch levels. Pitch ranges may be normal, wide and narrow.
We distinguish certain elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of every intonation group.
A pre-head. It is initial unstressed syllables. It may be low and high. A low pre-head consists of unstressed syllables pronounced at a low pitch. It is used frequently and considered neutral. A high pre-head is pronounced at a high pitch and makes the utterance sound emotional.
A head. It is the first stressed syllable in the utterance. It may be low and high. A low head introduces ascending scale and a high head introduces descending scale.
A scale. It is a series of stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with the first stressed syllable up to the last stressed syllable.
Scales may be a) according to their general pitch direction level, descending (the stressed syllables are gradually descending) and ascending (the stressed syllables are gradually ascending);
b) according to the direction of pitch movement within and between syllables descending scales may be falling, stepping, gliding (sliding) and scandent.
3. gliding (sliding) scale
Look at the examples:
The year is di’vided into ‘four seasons.
Pity ‘Peter ‘couldn’t come.
3. Sliding (gliding) scale.
Don’t ‘speak ‘too soon.
What a ‘pretty ‘little house.
Ascending scales may be stepping, sliding and scandent.
Look at the examples:
I could hardly be’lieve my eyes.
It’s such a ‘pity that you ‘can’t come.
Why ‘haven’t you ar’rived intime?
Level scales may be high, mid, low.
Look at the example:
Descending scales. Utterances pronounced with the descending scale express interest, they sound friendly. The descending scale is the commonest scale used with all the English tones.
Look at the example :
The ascending scale is regarded as a feature of emotional speech. It is used in many cases to express a negative attitude, irritation, indignation and anger. It is also used to express surprise, interest, protest.
Look at the examples:
The nucleus. It is the last stressed syllable in the pattern pronounced with a tone. At present we operate with nine tones in the system of O’Connor and Arnold.
All falling tones sound complete, categoric, laconic. Rise-Fall makes the utterance rather expressive. It exists in a kind of mocking or envious remarks. High Fall expresses liveliness, polite and friendly interest, personal involvement and sometimes mild surprise. Rising tones sound non-final and incomplete. Something is left unsaid. These tones mean continuation. The Low Rise is used in ordinary speech. The Low Rise and Fall Rise are synonymous, but Fall Rise is more emotional and it shows contrast and contradiction.
Look at the examples:
The High Rise is used in echoing questions.
Level tones are presented by Low Level, Mid Level and High Level tones.
4.2. How to Use the Tunes
Table 4
Cool, calm, phlegmatic,
absence of interest
Considered, weighty, neutral
I stayed in ‘bed until ‘nearly lunch time.
I stayed at ‘home and ‘worked at my book.
I liked it ‘very much.
I wouldn’t ‘mind ‘seeing it again.
Soothing, reassuring, encouraging
John’ll be here soon.
I won’t ‘drive ‘too fast (so don’t worry).
Since he’s ‘keen to do so why ‘not let him.
Grumble, disgruntled effect, reprovingly critical
2) Low Level H + + LR
I’ve been trying to ‘get ‘hold of you all day, but your wretched ‘line has been ‘out of order.
I didn’t hurt you // (so why make all that fuss?)
1)If the statement is not complete but leading to a following word group it implies continuation
I looked at him // (and recognized him at once).
She took the car // (and drove to London).
When ever he comes to visit us // (he tries to borrow money).
2) If the statement has two parts, of which the first is more important than the second
I looked at him // (and recognized him at once).
She took the car // (and drove to London).
When ever he comes to visit us // (he tries to borrow money).
FR spread over the whole sentence
I looked at him // (and recognized him at
She took the car // (and drove to London).
Whenever he ‘comes to visit us // (he tries
I went to London on Monday.
You can keep it if you really want it.
He was very well when I last saw him.
I’m very comfortable, thank you.
If a statement is intended as a question
He doesn’t ‘want to lend you it?
Continuation of table 4
For statements which show reservations on the part of the speaker and which might be followed by but or by You must admit or I must admit
He’s generous // (but I don’t trust him).
He’s handsome // (you must admit).
I could take you there tomorrow // (but not today).
I like your hat // (I must admit).
It wasn’t a very ‘nice thing to do // (you must admit).
(He’s forty-five) // Forty six.
(I like him a lot) // You used to like him.
(I can’t do it) // You can’t ‘do it that way.
I shan’t ‘tell you again.
You mustn’t shake it too much.
A wide range of emotions from being self-satisfied, smug, complacent to real enthusiasm
It’s a charming spot.
(It seems I’ve lost my passport.) — You’ve lost it.
(I’ve already seen this film.) — You’ve seen it? In a night club? Last night?
I. Wh-questions (containing Which, What, Who, etc.)
1. business-like neutral
2. a) interest in the subject
Why did you ‘change your mind? // Who on ‘earth was that? Which?
and for one-word questions
b) interest in the other person as well as in the subject
How’s your daughter?
When are you ‘coming to see us?
Continuation of table 4
(It took me 2 hours.)// How long?
(John told me to do it.) // Who told you to do it?
II. Yes-No questions
1. for short questions
(John’s on holiday.) // Is he?
(I went to the theatre last night.)// Did you?
2. for all other Yes-No
Have you seen him yet?
Did John post that letter?
3. for repetition questions of this type
(Will you help me?) — Will Ihelp you?
Come over here, /will you?
Let’s have some music, / shall we?
Hold this for me, / would you?
2. if neither the statement nor the tag-question have the word not in them
You liked it, /did you?
They’d like some more, / would they?
3. where the word not occurs in either the statement or the tag-question and you want the other person
a) to agree with you
It’s cold today, / isn’t it? (forcing the answer ‘yes’)
It was a very good film, / wasn’t it?
You won’t worry, / will you? (No)
b) to give his opinion
You’re coming to tea with us, / aren’t you?
You weren’t here on Wednesday,/were you?
He didn’t look ill, /did he?
What a ‘very ‘pretty dress!
Thank you very much.
Greeting and saying good-bye
Exclamations refer to something not very exciting or unexpected
Descending Scale + LF/HF
Don’t be a ‘stupid idiot.
Take your ‘feet off the chair.
Come and ‘have dinner with us.
Pleading, soothing, reassuring (more a request than an order)
FR spread over the whole sentence
Do have some more tea?
Send it as soon as you can.
Don’t make me angry.
Commands with only one important word
Encouraging commands often used in speaking to children
Don’t ‘forget your scarf.
4.3. Exercises
I.Transcribe the following conversation phonetically and mark the intonation in the line of text and on the staves.
— Can you recommend somewhere for a holiday?
— What an odd coincidence! I was just going to tell you about our holiday!
— Really? Where did you go? The South of France again?
— No, this time we went to Ireland.
— Oh, you went to Ireland, did you? You were thinking about it the last time we met.
— Oh, yes, I mentioned it to you, didn’t I?
— You were thinking of Belfast, weren’t you?
— Dublin. But we didn’t go there in the end.
— Didn’t you? Where did you go?
— That’s on the West coast, isn’t it? Was the weather good?
— Tell me about the prices there, would you?
— They weren’t too bad. You should go there and try it. But you ought to go soon. Summer’s nearly over!
— It isn’t over yet. But thank you very much for your advice.
— Good luck. Have a good time.
II. A Test on How to Use the Tunes
1. I liked it a lot. (personal participation)
2. He’s just arrived. (considered) — Fine!
3. He’s only thirty-five. — Is he?
4. I’ve been waiting for you for ages. Where on earth have you been? (disgruntled effect)
5. Who knows the way? (interest in the subject)
6. You’ll get into trouble unless you stop it. (worrying)
7. Ann is throwing a party tonight. (personal participation) — Really? (surprise) Let’s go there, shall we?
8. He’s really rather handsome. (neutral) — Handsome! (smug)
III. Use the following lengthening word groups for practising fluency:
IV. Use the following for practise in smoothness with initial vowels:
I was better off on my own.
Don’t argue with anyone as old as I am.
How awful it is to be ill when everyone else is all right.
The hungrier I am, the more I eat.
Is there any flaw in my argument, Oscar?
Have you ever asked Ann about Arthur and Amy?
I owe everything I am to my uncle and aunt.
Come over to our house for an evening.
I haven’t set eyes on Alec for ages and ages.
I ended up owing eighty-eight pounds.
You always ought to earn an honest living.
He’s got absolutely no idea how I organize things.
It’s my free evening, but my husband’s gone to the opera.
We aren’t going to hurry off to the zoo now after all.
Henry and I agree that you are to inherit the antique hatstand.
They admire Hugh a lot. He’s a handsome boy and so intelligent too.
We’re going to Edinburgh.
I could be selling a packet of these, or I could be selling an idea.
. are there any special techniques or methods that you can use to achieve that?
. we’ve established who they are and where they are.
. what they’re already buying vis-a-vis the product that we are trying to sell them.
. the sort of people who are going to watch american football.
5. PHONOSTYLISTICS
5.1. Its subject matter and basic notions
Phonostylistics is concerned with the study of phonetic phenomena and processes from the stylistic point of view. Intonation (prosody) plays a central role in stylistic differentiation of oral texts and one of the objectives of phonostylistics is the study of intonational styles. An intonational style can be defined as a system of interrelated intonational means which are used in a certain social sphere and serves a definite aim of communication.
It might be generally assumed that there are five intonational styles singled out mainly according to the purpose of communication and to which we could refer all the main varieties of the texts generated in everyday communication of a modern man.
They are as follows:
1. Informational style.
2. Academic style (scientific).
3. Publicistic style (oratorial).
4. Declamatory style (artistic).
5. Conversational style (familiar).
5.2. Intonational Peculiarities of Conversational Style
It is the most useful and least artificial kind of English to teach foreign students as a means of everyday communication. This style allows the occurence of the entire range of intonation patterns existing in English. This is due to the fact that there seem to be no social restrictions on the range of emotions and attitudes.
Sentence length is relatively short and the structure is predominantly simple.
Conversational style is characterized by:
1) a great proportion of parenthetic compound types of sentences introduced by “you see”, “you know”, “I mean”, “I say” etc.;
2) frequent use of interrogative sentences;
3) common use of vocatives;
4) a great number of question tags;
5) all sorts of repetition;
6) one-member sentences of nominal type (exclamations);
8) elliptical sentences;
9) contracted verbal forms (I’ll, I’ve).
interested and involved
varied. The pitch-range tends to be mid. It’s widened in excited situations
very varied. Generally is quite fast, but it depends on the fluency of the speaker, on his familiarity with the topic
hesitation pauses both filled and non-filled (hesitant drawls); breath-taking pauses varied;
uneven and varied. Perfect fluency tends to produce wrong effect
falling and rising tones; High Fall produces the effect of personal participation.
level or falling heads
5.3. Social English
Saying the right thing
Discussion
Have you ever been to an English-speaking country? Were there any situations in which you found yourself unable to think of an appropriate response quickly? Were there any situations in which you committed a faux pas (said the wrong thing)?
If your were to teach a foreigner five key phrases in your language that are unlikely to be in a standard phrase book, what would these be?
Vocabulary
You will be given some cards, some of which have statements or questions addressed to someone on them (marked A) and others which have short responses to these (marked B).
Find two or three responses for each statement or question.
Listening and Speaking
You are going to hear ten situations in which you might find yourself. After each one you will be given a short time in which to respond.
Say what it seems natural to say. Use any of the phrases you have just seen that seem appropriate.
Speaking
You will be given a card on which there is a description of an everyday situation.
Work in pairs to act out the situation. Don’t write it down. When you have finished pass your card on to the next pair.
5.4. Hesitation Phenomena
a) hesitation pauses, comprising unfilled (silent, voiceless), filled (voiced) and mixed varieties;
b) hesitation drawls, i.e. lengthening of sounds, syllables and words;
c) repetition of syllables and words;
d) false starts to words followed by self-corrections;
e) re-starting a construction or a sentence to conform more to what the speaker wants to say;
f) unfinished intonation groups, often accompanied by reduced loudness of the voice;
g) fillers-in, such as “well”, “and”, “you see”, “you know”, “in fact”, “I mean”, “mind you”, “but”, etc.
h) random vocalisations and such “phonetic oddities” as clicks, trills, intakes of breath etc.
5.5.Fillers
In English a lot of phrases are used as “fillers”, to allow time for thought or to involve the listener in the way the speaker’s mind is working.
I. Look at sentences 1-7 and work out the function of each filler, using clues a-e below.
1. Well, I did learn Japanese on my own.
2. I mean, my grammar was probably appalling.
a This adds explanation for the listener. ___
b This is a qualifier, often used with adjectives. ___
c This emphasises or adds surprising details. ___
d This usually introduces or continues a sentence. ___
e This often includes the listeners by assuming
that they have certain knowledge. ___
II. Use fillers to complete this dialogue, then check your answers with the tape.
A: Didn’t you learn one of your languages through a very interesting method?
A: Humanistic? What’s that?
A: So what happens exactly?
A: But surely the other learners won’t understand the question?
5.6. Exercises
I. Build up a conversation centred round the following line.
Men can’t be good teachers.
A good teacher must be a real artist.
Teaching a foreign language in school is pointless.
Schoolchildren should be allowed to choose the subjects they want to study.
Things went downhill in education.
You should have a healthy lifestyle and keep to a balanced diet to keep fit.
You were laid up with flu last week, I believe.
Public health care should go hand in hand with private health care.
One should master relaxation techniques to be able to overcome stress.
Alternative medicine has come of age.
Have you heard that traffic in Britain keeps to the left?
The Tower of London has a rich history.
Westminster stands for Parliament.
One of the special joys of London is the amount of space given over to parks, gardens, squares and open areas.
London museums enjoy a great popularity with London visitors.
The UK has a turbulent history going back some 2000 years.
London is the city of great contrasts.
II. Develop a line into a free conversation.
In my opinion it is preferable to study at a state university than at a private one.
The most interesting and bizarre time of the year to visit Cambridge is during May Week.
I say at the age of 16 schoolchildren in Great Britain take their GCSE examinations and then.
My cherished dream is to enter the Teachers’ Training University and to become a teacher of English.
The most popular spectator sport is football, of course.
If the ball hadn’t been invented, there would have been no sport.
Sport should be competetive otherwise I wouldn’t call it sport take aerobics or body-building for example.
If you don’t get the exercise that your body wants, then things can go badly wrong.
Britain is a smallish country, but there is hardly a country in the world where such a variety of scenery can be found in such a small compass.
No wonder the English race is a sea-loving one.
The Highlands of Scotland boast their outstanding beauty with romantic past.
Personally I hate seeing people off.
Travelling by air you have comfort, speed and pleasure combined.
5.7. Informational Style
How to hold an audience
The speech should be enjoyed both by audience and speaker.
It should be the aim of the man who wishes to speak in public to arrange and to express his ideas in such a way that people cannot help listening to what he has to say.
Your voice shows not only your character but also your mood. Your voice is you: listen therefore to the voices of other people, and work to improve your own. It is only with proper preparation that delivery can be spontaneous and that you can give your whole attention to the audience. The successful speech is the result of constant, patient practice. Memory, judgement, imagination all play part. Properly prepared you can concentrate on what you are actually saying. Preparation is a training in arranging ideas in logical order and in proportion.
Before ever you face your audience you must think long and seriously on the subject on which you intend to speak.
Distinct speech is possible for everyone provided he takes the trouble to develop the habit of clear speaking: monotony in the voice may indicate a feeling of inadequacy. Many people talk habitually with their mouths half-closed. How much pleasanter it would be to listen to many speakers we know if they had once developed the habit of opening their mouths.
Speak out as if addressing those at the back. Talk slowly, deliberately, particularly when you introduce a new idea or an unusual word or phrase.
Be absolutely clear as to what you want to say and say it as simply and as definitely as possible. Don’t be afraid of opposition.
Use gestures, the only purpose of which is to arrange the communication.
Intonational Peculiarities of Informational Texts
This intonational style is sometimes qualified as “formal”, “neutral”, since in an ideal setting, in its pure manifestation it is least of all influenced by extralinguistic factors.
First of all, it happens in the written variety of an informational narrative read aloud. As is widely known, spoken speech is less imperial, the spoken variety of such texts expresses more personal concern and involvement. Press reporting and broadcasting is very close in the manner to reading aloud informational narrative as the news reader tends to sound impartial when reporting routine news or weather forecasts, for example.
In this manual we’ll be dealing with an informational narrative read aloud and its spoken variety since they seem to be most applicable to teaching profession.
Varieties of the language
impartial, neutral, dispassionate
neutral, dispassionate, occasionally conveying a fair degree of personal involvement, interested
normal throughout the text, varied at the phonopassage boundaries
varied (varying from loud to low)
medium levels; ranges are wide
mid; a bit narrower than in reading
normal; even or slow
varied; faster than in reading; slower on emphatic centres
not greatly varied, longer at the phonopassage boundaries, syntactically and semantically predictable
varied from long to short; hesitation pauses non-predictable
Fall-Rise or Low Rise may be in non-final tone group
falls on semantic centres;
Low Rises, Mid Levels and Fall-Rises in non-final groups
descending and level heads
varied; common use of level heads and broken scales
Scientific Style
Lectures and Speeches
Classroom lectures are generally formal in style, but the manner of delivery may differ (markedly) from one lecture to another. In a university class the size of the audience has a great deal of influence on the style of the lecture. If the audience of a small group — up to about 10, for example — the speaker is likely to become rather informal; in large lecture halls with a hundred or more students present, he will speak quite differently. If the professor expects the students to make notes, he will speak more slowly and leave more pauses.
Speeches (orations, public addresses) are quite formal in style even though here and there they may use slang or other informal speech patterns for special effect. The delivery of speeches is quite distinctive. The pitch of the speaker’s voice tends to be higher than his normal speaking range, and the regular intonation patterns of the language are sometimes exaggerated and even distorted.
These devices were developed originally, of course, so that the speaker could be understood by large numbers of people who might be some distance away from him. With modern amplification devices, these speech patterns are no longer as necessary as they used to be, but public speakers still use them, probably because they feel that the audience expects them to. The speech would not seem very important if it was read without extra emphasis, without unusual pitches and intonation patterns, without the pauses and other devices that are characteristic of the oratorial style.
Lectures
1. You should notice the large amount of attention which the lecturer pays to the organization and presentation of his material. He spends a considerable amount of time on telling his audience what he is going to say, and how he is going to say it, and also reminding them of where he has got to, how he wishes them to take some of his points.
2. Lecturers have the choice of reading the whole of what they wish to say from the script, or of speaking with the aid of a set of notes. They may in addition to these two possibilities abandon any kind of written form whatsoever and speak entirely without notes.
3. No public speech is ever completely spontaneous, in the manner of conversation, since all such speeches, even those in which no notes are used, will have been to some extent prepared in advance.
4. Another common influence on public speakers comes from the fact that, if they are to do their job properly, they must take into account what they sound like to the audience. Certain requirements of clarity and audibility are difficult to escape, and the need to quite understanding by means of careful use of pause and intonation — what is usually called “timing” and “phrasing” — nearly always has some effects on the language use.
5. This attempt to control sound may be seen as a result of trying also to control the audience — or at least their attention. Another result of audience control is to be seen in the tendency to adopt “rhetorical” forms of speech, in which the listeners are addressed or questioned directly so as to persuade them that they are in contact with the speakers and to get them more readily round to his way of thinking. Another effective tool of controling the audience is the use of direct address.
6. The language of public speaking is often a language of addition. Extra facts and extra arguments are tagged on to those that have gone before — frequently in a similar grammatical form — so that a speaker may make point clearer by adding detail or more emphatic or persuasive by repeating it in a slightly different way.
The Intonational Peculiarities of Scientific Style
Attention is focused here on a lecture on a scientific subject and reading aloud a scientific prose. That is the type of speech that occurs in the written variety of language in prepared, public, formal discourse.
This style is usually used by university lecturers, school teachers or by scientists, it is manifested in academic and educational lectures, scientific discussions, at the conferences, seminars and in classes.
The lecturer’s purpose is:
1) to get the message of the lecture to the audience;
2) to attract and guide the attention of the audience;
3) to establish contact with the audience.
This aim is achieved with the help of intonational means.